Who the island Sardinia travels, comes across peculiar legacies of a prehistoric culture, which because of its typical architectural evidence, the Nuraghi, as Nuragic culture referred to as. Since this culture was writtenless, not even the name with which the Sardinian natives called themselves is known today.
If you are not only interested in the temperature of the sea and the equipment of the beach bar, you will find fascinating historical legacies all over the country, which allow you to immerse yourself in Sardinian early history. Here there is a much more detailed, tabular, sortable listing.
The Nuragic culture evolved from the Sardinian indigenous population in the Bronze Age and existed for centuries in the interior of Sardinia, while the Phoenicians (Punic) established trading establishments on the coasts. With the expansion of the Phoenician-Carthaginian sphere of influence inland, the subjugation of the Phoenicians by the Romans in the Punic Wars, the Nuragher were displaced into the mountain areas in the hinterland of the east coast and only merged into the now Roman-dominated culture in the post-Christian centuries.
History and buildings of the pre-nuragic culture
Traces of settlement have already been found on Sardinia from the Old Stone Age. In the regions of Sassari and Nuoro Stone tools made of limestone and flint were found, which are from the presence of man here before 10,000 BC. witness. One example is that 1 Grotta Corbeddu. Finds from the Middle Stone Age were found in caves 2 Grotta di Su Coloru at Laerru and Su Pistoccu Arbus.
In the Neolithic the number of finds is increasing rapidly. From 6000 BC. a culture develops with agriculture, village structures. In addition to stone tools, ceramics are used. On the southwest slopes of the 3 Monte Arci Obsidian deposits were exploited, which were used for the manufacture of blades, spear and arrowheads and which became a sought-after commodity throughout southern Europe.
In the epoch the pottery of the cardial culture is developed, later statuettes of the mother goddess with female attributes are made. The architecture also developed typical characteristics in this epoch. Menhirs, sometimes whole circles of dolmens, are erected. For burials, burial chambers and caves are dug into the rock, initially simple box or oven graves, later entire necropolises with burial chambers, with one access (Dromos) and one to three burial chambers. In Sardinia these tombs are called Domus de Janas (Fairy houses). Megalithic walls are erected on heights to protect the settlements and the first Protonuraghi arise.
Finds from this era were found at 4 Su Caroppu, in the Grotta Verde 5 Capo Caccia, in the 6 Grotta di Filiestru at Mara; from the later Neolithic in the 7 Grotta di Sa Ucca de su Tintirriolu. In San Ciriaco at Terralba became the first underground necropolis Domus de Janas excavated. At Arzachena found barrows and in the 8 Necropoli di Li Muri a megalithic circle. Finds from the 9 Grotta San Michele at Ozieri helped the Ozieri culture to her name. This is an impressive relic 10 Altar of Monte d’Accoddi.
In the Copper Age originated in the Bonnanaro culture a new kind of ceramics. From three-legged, thick-walled standing vessels, one goes over to finer beakers, related to the bell beaker culture. The tombs are called box graves and necropolis in the manner of Domus de Janas executed. Such underground necropolises are last created by the people of the Bonnanaro culture (11 Necropoli di Museddu, 12 Necropoli di Santu Pedru, 13 Necropoli di Sos Furrighesos), later you go to giant tombs and proto- or corridor uraghen. Thus around 1800 BC. the era of nuragic culture and the Bronze age began.
History of Nuragic Culture: Classification
The nuragic culture is divided by Paolo Melis into five main phases and a total of nine sub-phases:
| Years BC | epoch | Nuragic culture | Ceramics | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1700 - 1500 | Bronze age | Early Bronze Age | Nuraghi IA | Sa Turricula (Bonnanaro III) |
| 1500 - 1350 | Middle Bronze Age | Nuraghi IB | San Cosimo, Metopalk ceramics | |
| 1350 - 1200 | Young Bronze Age | Nuraghi II | Comb ceramic, gray ceramic | |
| 1200 - 900 | End bronze age | Nuraghi III | Pre-geometric ceramics | |
| 900 - 730 | Iron age | 1. Iron Age 1 | Nuraghi IVA | Geometric |
| 730 - 600 | 1. Iron Age 2 | Nuraghi IVB | Orientalizing | |
| 600 - 510 | 1. Iron Age 3 | Nuraghi IVC | Archaic | |
| 510 - 238 | 2. Iron Age | Nuraghi VA | Punic | |
| after 238 | Historic time | Nuraghi VB | Roman |
History of Nuragic Culture
The Sardinian natives cultivated from the 14th century BC. Relations with the Eastern Mediterranean, such as finds originating in the Aegean show especially in the southeast of the island. Also Mycenaean pottery reached Sardinia around this time, the earliest pieces in the second half of the 14th century BC. dated.
During the 13th century BC The contacts intensify, especially to Mycenaean culture and to Cyprus. In addition to imported original Mycenaean ceramics, there were also many fragments of vessels made in Sardinia in the Mycenaean style. Copper was in great demand in Sardinia. Despite local copper deposits in Sardinia, a considerable number of copper bars in the shape of an ox skin were found. These were the typical trade form for copper in the Mediterranean region at this time and were based on Cyprus produced. The copper and bronze objects of the Nuragic culture, on the other hand, were made from native copper.
As the Mycenaean culture around 1050 BC Finally, the Phoenicians won the sea rulership in the Mediterranean Sea. From the 9th century (presumably with the consent of the local population) they set up trading establishments on the coasts, but began in 550 BC. To colonize the island. The distressed nuragher attacked the successors of the Phoenicians, the Punians, in 509 BC. and were able to repel them, which prompted the Punians to seek support from their colony Carthage to request. The Carthaginians brought between 500 and 238 BC. the parts of Sardinia of interest to them, mostly located on the western half of the island, came under their rule and established several places (Bosa, Cornus, Tharros, Sulki (today Sant’Antioco), Bithia (Chia), Nora, Cagliari and Olbia). Only in the mountainous inland in the east of the island, the region received the name Barbaria or Barbagia, the nuraghi were able to maintain their independence. Ethnic and cultural amalgamations occurred along the coasts colonized by the Puners.
The rising world power was able to do so in the first Punic War Rome defeat the Carthaginians on the island of Sardinia in 238 BC. fell Tharros into the hands of the Roman legions. The last independent Sardinian natives in that of Rome definitely conquered Barbaria or (Barbagia) assimilated and the Nuragic culture definitely perished.
The construction techniques of the same time Corsica, the sesiots on Pantelleria as well as the Talayot culture on the Balearic Islands are comparable to those of the nuragher.
Buildings of the nuragic culture
Buildings of the nuragic culture IA
In the early days of the nuragic culture, round buildings developed, which, however, did not yet have a central interior, but only one or more corridors and small cells. Part of it runs through a stone slab ("Fall") covered corridor the entire diameter of the structure ("Nuraghe with a continuous corridor"), which has two entrances, but mostly a corridor ends blindly inside, sometimes in a niche or in crossed side corridors. The narrow corridor at the entrance, covered with a lintel in the form of a stone slab, widens inside and the room is covered with partly overlapping stone slabs, this one Protonuraghe with a ship-shaped space represents an early form in the development of the cantilever vault, which makes up the real nuraghi Protonuraghi There were hardly any usable rooms, the platform on the upper terrace was probably the most important part of the building, and living quarters with a wooden roof probably existed here.
At the time the approx. 300 preserved Protonuraghen were formed, giant tombs with a semicircle made of erected stones (Madau, Muraguada) and late forms of the Sardinian rock tombs (Mesu ’e Montes, rock tomb of Molafa, Su Carralzu, Sos Furrighesos) were also being built.
The Giant Tombs were tombs that were usually used for multiple burials. They consist of an elongated burial chamber, which, like the corridor of a nuraghi, is made of erected stones that are covered with flat stone slabs. The entrance usually consists of an erected high stone ("curved stele") with a very low entrance gate, in a semicircular arc further erected stone slabs adjoin a round square, the "exedra" half or with a continuation into a low one Wall completely. In the exedra, which was partly equipped with a stone seat, complex funeral rituals were celebrated; people probably visited the grave of a deceased hero even longer and spent the night in front of it.
In north-western Sardinia, instead of megalithic graves, there are also giant graves that were dug into the rock; in some cases, Stone Age "domus des janas" were re-used and redesigned according to burial customs.
In the area of the giant graves, special shapes with a crenellated "tooth frieze" also on the stele were found Betylene. These probably correspond to the successors of the Stone Age menhirs, they are erected stones, which, as a gender attribute of women, are equipped with two humps at chest level, there are also male forms. The betylenes at the giant grave of Tamuli are known Macomer.
Buildings of the Nuragic Culture IB
From approx. 1600/1550 BC. the first typical nuraghi appear, the Tholos Nuraghe is characterized by a cantilever vault (a false dome formed by stacked stones, similar to the cultures of Mycenae and Crete). A total of around 6500 nuraghi were discovered, of which many were destroyed in the past 150 years due to the need for stones for road construction and the fencing of homesteads and houses.
The nuraghi are built using drywall technology without the use of cement or mortar. Some of the stones were left in their original state, others were carefully worked and fitted, especially in the higher areas in the area of the parapet of the upper terrace. From fallen stones it can be concluded that the upper terraces of many nuraghi were equipped with a protruding parapet.
Inside a nuraghe there is a round room with a dome designed as a cantilever vault, the so-called Tholos. In the cantilever vault, the overlapping stone slabs are laid one on top of the other in ever narrower circles and then covered with a finishing stone slab, in contrast to the Mycenaean The Sardinian tholoi were always built in the open air and never under an artificially raised mound of earth. The technique of the real vault was only later developed in Egypt and introduced to the region by the Etruscans and Romans.
In most nuraghi, a staircase leads from the entrance corridor to the left in a spiral shape within the width of the wall of the building up to the upper floor or. on the terrace. In some nuraghi, the staircase to the terrace begins in the interior, mostly it begins above ground level. From this it can be concluded that there was probably a wooden staircase or wooden ladder. In some nuraghi, the staircase was constructed outside the building.
In the interior of the nuragh there are mostly other rooms in addition to the central room, which can be reached via corridors from the inside or occasionally from the outside. Opposite the staircase there is often a niche that is usually incorrectly referred to as the "control room".
Wells or silos were sometimes dug in the floor of the main room, in side niches or on the terrace to store liquids or food.
In the case of multi-storey nuraghi, the stairs often lead to a landing at the entrance to the premises, which is exactly above the entrance corridor. The interior of the nuraghe receives light mostly through a window above the entrance and sometimes through small rectangular windows, which are incorrectly referred to as loopholes.
In the era of nuragic culture IB, the first Well sanctuaries Erected, springs and holy wells were in the culture with a pronounced veneration of the dead, the gates to the underworld or to the afterlife. The temple complexes or fountain sanctuaries were laid out in three parts: in a rectangular vestibule, the "vestibulum" or "atrium", there were benches made of stone. Often a drain led from the vestibule poured sacred water back to the spring basin. A flight of stairs then leads down to the tholos room. The "Tholos room" with the contained spring or the well shaft is designed in the manner of a nuragh, the central room is covered by a false dome designed as a cantilever vault. The dome was usually buried underground and, unlike the nuraghi, was not in the open air.
Often a wall surrounded the "Temenos", the holy district. In the area around the well sanctuaries, most of the nuragic bronze statuettes were found, which were probably votive offerings to underline a request for or thanks for a good harvest, etc. Round residential buildings were often built around the Holy District later.
Rectangular "Ante temples" or "Megaron temples" are rarer. Ante temples have a rectangular floor plan, the side walls on the front and back are elongated, a typical example was found in Romanzescu near Bitti. In the last few decades, cultic rotunda were only identified sporadically, which had a floor plan twice as large and a larger central basin than the sector or meeting huts. Water dripping from animal head sculptures was collected in a sewer system; stone benches were found along the walls for seating.
Buildings of the nuragic culture II / III
From the 14th century The individual nuraghi were extended with laterally added nuraghe towers. Wall curtains connected the nuraghi to form bastions, in the Nuragic Culture III phase around 1200 and 900 BC. Nuraghe complexes such as the Nuraghe Santu Antine (Torralba), Nuraghe Su Nuraxi at Barumini, Nuraghe Santa Barbara (Macomer) and Sa Domu ’e s’Orcu (Siddi) of three, four or five nuraghi.
The nuraghi complexes were surrounded with walls, so that an inner courtyard was formed, through which the secondary only towers could be reached from the main tower. Niches and silos opened up in the masonry facing the courtyard. In some of the tall side nuraghe towers with wooden mezzanines, additional floors were added, but such constructions are rarely found in the main towers.
Sometimes the nuraghe complex was surrounded by another wall, an example is the Nuraghe Losa bei Abbasanta. These enclosures probably served military and civil purposes, they could serve to protect important points (springs, watercourses, valley entrances) or protect the property of authorities.
In the nuraghi culture IB and especially II were as described above Well sanctuaries built. Examples are those from (Sa Testa, Santa Cristina, Santa Vittoria (Serri), Su Tempiesu, etc.).
The bronze figurines typical of the heyday of the nuragic culture appear for the first time in the late nuragic culture II and phase III.
Buildings of the Nuragic Culture IV
From 1000 to 700 BC The nuragic culture became during the Iron Age. Settlements with numerous round buildings developed around the central nuraghe complex, which probably represent residential buildings of the inhabitants belonging to a tribe. The round buildings consisted of a stone wall, depending on the thickness with niches for storing food and liquids. Another type of storage were large vessels (similar to the pithoi) buried in the ground, which were covered with a stone lid. There was usually a fireplace in the middle of the dwelling. A roof of tree trunks, branches and foliage stretched over the dwellings; the walls were partly plastered with mud or clay, and partly cork was used for insulation.
In the late period of the Nuragic village culture, residential complexes were built. The Sector huts consist of several round buildings around a central courtyard; Special buildings for the bread oven and particularly careful round buildings probably served a domestic cult, these are characterized by seats on the walls and a central basin.
The only public structures are found "Meeting huts", large round buildings with a bench built along the wall.
In contrast to the Punic or Roman culture, there was no central square or agora, no main or side streets, no public fountains (apart from the cultic fountain sanctuaries) or troughs and no sewerage in the nuragic villages.
Examples of nuragic villages are those of Su Nuraxi (Barumini), Palmavera (at Alghero).
In the late phase 900 - 500 BC BC emerged especially in the Nuoro Province Nuragic settlements, which represent a different, partly nuragheless form of cult site design (Serra Orrio and Tiscali).
Crafts in nuragic culture
Sculpture
Stone sculptures are comparatively rare, and most of them probably had a cultic character. Stone models with nuraghi showing the superstructure are of particular interest. Exceptional are those from the 9th century. larger than life statues of Nuragic warriors who lived in Mont'e Prama at Convertibles were found.
Bronze statuettes
In the 9th century the first bronze figurines were created, which shape the perception of nuragic art and are exhibited in international museums. The statuettes were probably brought to the sanctuaries as votive offerings in order to favor the gods for the harvest, a good fish catch or a victorious campaign or to ask for a healing or to show gratitude for it (in the case of a healed person who gives up his cane) .
These statuettes mostly depict people (in the vast majority men), warriors, animals and fantasy creatures, ships and also miniature models of towering nuraghe towers. This is all the more important that no nuraghi with an intact superstructure were found.
To the Warrior statuettes one recognizes the clothing of that time, archers are often depicted. Most warriors wear the "nuragic stiletto", a short dagger with an elongated crossguard to protect the hand on the handle - these weapons have also been found in natural size.
The models of ships are of particular interest: about 120 ship models were found, mostly with an animal / deer head sculpture on the bow and a room with a railing in the middle. Most Ship figurines have a ring loop in the middle for hanging, which led to the hypothesis that they could have served as oil lamps.
The bronze figurines were made using the lost wax technique. The model was first made from wax or tallow, then enclosed in a clay mold. The molten metal poured in through a hole at the top took the place of the wax, and any residue could drip off through a hole in the bottom of the clay mold. The sprues were removed after the clay mold was knocked off.
Ceramics
Elegant vessels were made in pre-Nuragic times, and elaborate decorations were created in the Nuragic period. In the Nuragic Culture I era, vessels were created with geometric patterns stamped in a checkerboard style, "Metopal style". In the era of Nuragic culture (II) / III, ceramics were created with decorations in the form of dotted lines, which were probably pressed into the clay with a comb-like instrument, so-called "comb ceramics". Flat vessels or plates in particular were decorated in this way; It is assumed that these "bread boards" were used for the cultic production or provision of flat cakes and breads.
In the phase of Nuragic Culture IV, the vessels were decorated with very rich and fine geometrical patterns and provided with a fine reddish coating. The "geometric ceramics" include, on the one hand, jugs with a pear-like shape and two or four handles and "Askoi", vessels with one handle and a spout on the opposite side, which is partly designed like a beak.
Worth seeing buildings of the nuragic culture
Over all Sardinia There are remains of 7000 - 8000 nuraghi scattered around, partly only rounded stone piles or barely recognizable round tower foundations, partly well-preserved complex buildings from the Bronze and Iron Ages, in the following only the most extraordinary representatives are listed, the list can vary according to the type of building and region / province.
Here there is a much more detailed, tabular, sortable listing.
| site | Locality | province | epoch | Art | localization | information | picture |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nuragic village of Palmavera | Alghero | Sassari | IV | Nuragic village | 1 Palmavera | Nuragic village with a complex of nuraghi surrounded by residential buildings, meeting hut. Entrance fee. |  Nuraghe di Palmavera |
| Necropoli di Anghelu Ruju | Alghero | Sassari | Pre | Necropolis (pre-nuragic) | 14 Necropoli di Anghelu Ruju | Necropolis from the prenuraghic period with 38 "Domus de Janas". |  Anghelu Ruju necropolis |
| Necropoli di Santu Pedru | Alghero | Sassari | Pre | Necropolis (pre-nuragic) | 15 Necropoli di Santu Pedru | Pre-Uraghic necropolis. Entrance fee. | .jpg/220px-Alghero,_necropoli_di_Santu_Pedru_(03).jpg) Santu Pedru necropolis |
| Nuraghe Albucciu | Arzachena | Sassari | IV | Nuragic village | 2 Nuraghe Albucciu | Nuraghe on a rock with surrounding structures of a village, nearby a giant tomb and a nuraghe temple. Entrance fee. |  Nuraghe Albucciu |
| Nuraghe La Prisgiona | Arzachena | Sassari | IV | Nuragic village | 3 Nuraghe La Prisgiona | Nuraghe with surrounding residential structures and Capanna di Riunione. Entrance fee. |  Nuraghe La Prisgiona |
| Giant tomb Coddu ‘Ecchju | Arzachena | Sassari | IV | Giant grave | 4 Tomba di Giganti Coddu ‘Ecchju | Giant grave with preserved gate stele and corridor grave. Entrance fee. |  Tomba dei giganti Coddu 'Ecchju |
| Roccia dell'Elefante necropolis | Castelsardo | Sassari | Pre | necropolis | 16 Roccia dell'Elefante | Elephant-like rocks formed by erosion, burial chambers were carved into the rocks. | _-_4.JPG/220px-Rocher_de_l'éléphant_(Castelsardo)_-_4.JPG) Elephants - rocks |
| Nuraghe Paddaggiu | Castelsardo | Sassari | I. | Tholosnuraghe | 5 Nuraghe Paddaggiu | Nicely located Tholos Nuraghe. | .JPG/220px-Castelsardo_-_Nuraghe_Paddaggiu_(09).JPG) Nuraghe Paddaggiu |
| Necropoli Su Crucifissu Mannu | Porto Torres | Sassari | Pre | Necropolis (pre-nuragic) | 17 Necropoli di Su Crucifissu Mannu | Pre-Uraghic necropolis | .JPG/220px-Porto_Torres_-_Su_Crucifissu_Mannu_(1).JPG) Su Crucifissu Mannu necropolis |
| Monte d'Accodi | Porto Torres | Sassari | Pre | Sanctuary (pre-nuragic) | 18 Monte d'Accodi | Sanctuary with an altar from the prenuraghic period. | .JPG/220px-Sassari_-_Complesso_prenuragico_di_Monte_d'Accoddi_(27).JPG) Altar installation on Monte d'Accoddi |
| Necropoli di Museddu | Cheremule | Sassari | Pre | Necropolis (pre-nuragic) | 19 Necropoli di Museddu | Necropolis with 37 burial chambers from the Neolithic period. Free admission. | .JPG/220px-Cheremule_-_Necropoli_di_Moseddu_(04).JPG) Necropoli di Museddu |
| Necropoli di Tennero | Cheremule | Sassari | Pre | Necropolis (pre-nuragic) | 20 Necropoli di Tennero | Pre-Nuragic necropolis. Free admission. | .jpg/220px-Cheremule,_necropoli_di_Tennero_(18).jpg) Necropoli di Tennero |
| Nuraghe Santu Antine | Torralba | Sassari | III | Complex nuraghe | 6 Nuraghe Santu Antine | Nuraghe with a complex structure |  Nuraghe Santu Antine |
| Necropoli di Sant'Andrea Priu | Torralba | Sassari | Pre | Necropolis (pre-nuragic) | 21 Necropoli di Sant'Andrea Priu | Necropolis with multi-chambered graves from the Ozieri culture, later converted into a Byzantine church |  Necropoli di Sant'Andrea Priu |
| Nuraghe Santa Barbara | Macomer | Nuoro | III | Complex nuraghe | 7 Nuraghe Santa Barbara | Complex nuraghe |  Nuraghe Santa Barbara |
| Nuraghe Ruggiu | Macomer | Nuoro | I. | Nuraghe | 8 Nuraghe Ruggiu | Nuraghe | .jpg/220px-Macomer_-_Nuraghe_Ruggiu_(06).jpg) Nuraghe Ruggiu |
| Necropoli di Filigosa | Macomer | Nuoro | Pre | Necropolis (pre-nuragic) | 22 Necropoli di Filigosa | Pre-Nuragic necropolis | .jpg/220px-Macomer,_necropoli_di_Filigosa_(19).jpg) Filigosa Necropolis |
| Nuraghe and Baityloi from Tamuli | Macomer | Nuoro | Pre | Baetyli | 9 Nuraghe and Baityloi from Tamuli | Baityloi or Bätylen are stones set up for cultic purposes, the "female" forms of which have breast-like curves. There is also a nuraghe nearby |  Baetyli from Tamuli |
| Nuraghe Losa | Abbasanta | Oristano | IV | Nuragic village | 10 Nuraghe Losa | Complex nuraghe with surrounding enclosure of a nuragic village |  Nuraghe Losa |
| Nuraghe Zuras | Abbasanta | Oristano | II | Nuraghe | 11 Nuraghe Zuras | Nuraghe with cantilever vault and three niches | |
| Pozzo Santo di Santa Cristina | Paulilatino | Oristano | IV | Well sanctuary | 12 Pozzo Santo di Santa Cristina | Nuragic well sanctuary |  Pozzo Sacro Santa Cristina |
| Nuraghe di Santa Cristina | Paulilatino | Oristano | IV | Nuragic village | 13 Nuraghe Santa Cristina | Nuragic village with a nuraghe and three long houses with cantilever vaults; older than the well sanctuary | _-_panoramio.jpg/220px-Nuraghe_di_Santa_Cristina_(Paulilatino,_OR)_-_panoramio.jpg) Nuraghe di Santa Cristina |
| Santa Vittoria | Serri | South Sardegna | IV | Well sanctuary and Temenos (holy place) | 14 Santa Vittoria | Well sanctuary in a temenos, a sacred area and a separate festival area |  Entrance to the well sanctuary / Pozzo sacro |
| Nuraghe Arrubiu | Orroli | South Sardegna | III | Complex nuraghe | 15 Nuraghe Arrubiu | Nuraghe with a complex structure |  Nuraghe Arrubiu |
| Pranu Muttedu | Goni | South Sardegna | Pre | Megalithic structures, necropolis | 23 Area Archeologica Pranu Muttedu | Megalithic structures and necropolis |  Pranu Muttedu: Tomba II |
| Su Nuraxi | Barumini | South Sardegna | IV | Nuragic Village & Complex Nuraghe | 16 Su Nuraxi | Nuraghe with a complex structure |  Su Nuraxi |
| Nuraghe Sirai | Monte Sirai, Carbonia | South Sardegna | III | Complex nuraghe | 17 Nuraghe Sirai | Nuraghe with a complex structure |  Nuraghe Sirai |
literature
- Giorgio Stacul (Ed.): Arte della Sardegna nuragica (= Biblioteca moderna Mondadori. Vol. 704. Mondadori, Milan 1961.
- Paolo Melis: Nuragic culture, Carlo Delfino editore, Sassari 2003, ISBN 88-7138-276-5 .
- Jürgen E. Walkowitz: The megalithic syndrome. European Stone Age cult sites (= Contributions to the prehistory and early history of Central Europe. Vol 36). Beier & Beran, Langenweißbach 2003, ISBN 3-930036-70-3 .
- Laura Soro: Sardinia and the Mycenaean World: The Research of the Last 30 Years, in: Fritz Blakolmer et al. (Ed.): Austrian research on the Aegean Bronze Age 2009. Files from the conference from March 6th to 7th, 2009 at the Department of Classical Studies at the University of Salzburg, Vienna 2011, pp. 283–294.
- Massimo Pittau: Storia dei sardi nuragici. Domus de Janas, Selargius 2007.
- Gustau Navarro i Barba: La Cultura Nuràgica de Sardenya (= Collecció Sardenya. Vol. 1). Edicions dels A.L.I.LL., Mataró 2010, ISBN 978-84-613-9278-0 .
- Massimo Pittau: Compendio della Civiltà dei Sardi Nuragici. Sassari 2017.
