Volcanoes - Volcanoes

Not to be confused with Volcano, California.

Volcanoes come in many shapes and sizes, and their eruptions vary hugely in both frequency and intensity. One common type is called a stratovolcano, a conical mountain built up from multiple layers of ash and lava over centuries; many of the world's best-known volcanoes are of this type.

Volcanic eruptions are not all that common — a few dozen a year, worldwide — and are extremely dangerous. The worst of them cause complete devastation over wide areas, sometimes with a large death toll. However, many volcanoes are tourist attractions and are worth a visit provided you take due care, in particular keeping a safe distance from eruptions.

Understand

According to the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program, the major volcano monitoring organization based in Washington, DC, volcanoes can be classified as follows:

Etna's 2011 eruption, Sicily, Italy.
  • active if
    it has erupted within the last 10,000 years (recently in geological terms)
    or it shows considerable activity such as hot springs, fumes, and earthquakes
  • dormant (French for sleeping) if it is active but not currently erupting
  • extinct if it is no longer active

Other organizations generally use the same terms, but may have somewhat different definitions. These definitions are not precise; dormant volcanoes sometimes erupt, and it is not unknown for supposedly extinct volcanoes to come back to life.

There are hundreds of active volcanoes around the world, but many more that are dormant or extinct. One can still appreciate the awesome power of nature from these volcanoes, without the hazards that go with active ones.

  • Decade Volcanoes. A group of 16 active volcanoes selected by scientists as particularly worthy of study because they both have a history of large eruptions and are located near populous areas. These may be the most dangerous volcanoes on Earth in terms of potential to create large disasters. Decade Volcanoes on Wikipedia (updated May 2020)

Measurement scale

There is a scale for the force of eruptions called the Volcanic Explosivity Index or VEI; the main factor is the volume of ejecta, the amount of material spewed out. The scale is mostly logarithmic; a VEI-5 eruption produces at least 1 km3 of ejecta, VEI-6 10 km3, VEI-7 100 km3, and VEI-8 1000 km3.

Really large eruptions are quite rare. The 20th century had seven eruptions of VEI-5 or VEI-6 and hundreds of smaller ones, but none of VEI-7 or above. The most recent VEI-7 events were Lake Taupo (New Zealand) in 180 CE, Ilopango (El Salvador) around 431, Mount Paektu (on the Korean-Chinese border) around 946, possibly Mount Rinjani (Indonesia) in 1257, and Mount Tambora (Indonesia) in 1815. As for VEI-8, there has not been such an event in recorded history; the most recent was at Lake Taupo about 26,000 years ago.

The Tambora eruption of 1815 put out 160 cubic km (38 cubic miles) of ejecta, including enough dust to cause "the year without a summer", widespread crop failure and some famine as far away as the US and Europe. Said "year without a summer" led the German Karl Drais to invent a "walking machine" which is today considered the first ancestor of the modern bicycle.

Some eruptions have complications. The 1883 eruption of Krakatoa was rated only 6 on the VEI scale, but the explosions were absolutely enormous — heard several thousand miles away and estimated to be equivalent to 200 megatons of TNT — mainly because a huge amount of seawater was instantly turned to steam on contact with superheated magma.

Supervolcanoes

Supervolcanoes are the largest volcanoes on Earth, but are not easily recognizable as such. Many are so big that, for many years, even geologists did not appreciate that these features were volcanoes in their own right.

Supervolcanoes are generally in the form of large calderas (Spanish for "cauldron"), which are giant volcanic depressions formed either by large explosive eruptions or quiet long-term drainage of magma. They often have associated lava flows or domes, and in many cases there are smaller volcanoes within the caldera. Many of the calderas are now lakes, and sometimes the smaller volcanoes are islands in the lake.

Examples of supervolcanoes include Yellowstone in the United States, Lake Toba and Mount Tambora in Indonesia, the Phelgraean Fields near Naples in Italy, Lake Taupo in New Zealand, and Taal Volcano in the Philippines. Most supervolcanoes have undergone unimaginably huge eruptions (VEI-7 or 8) in the geologic past; these are what created the huge caldera. However, such eruptions are tens or hundreds of thousands of years apart. There is almost no reason to worry that Yellowstone will explode during your visit, and the part of Taal Volcano that is still active has been called the world's smallest volcano.

Geothermal areas

Throughout volcanic areas of the world, one may also encounter geothermal areas. These places are often, but not always, associated with volcanic activity. Hot springs, geysers, mud pools and fumaroles (steam/gas vents) are common scenic features in geothermal areas, and hot springs can be great places to take a dip. Countries such as Japan, South Korea, Taiwan and Iceland are especially famous for hot spring baths. Geothermal areas are also an environmentally friendly source of energy, and Iceland takes advantage of this very well.

Yellowstone National Park is probably the best known example of a geothermal area, as molten magma lies not far beneath its 640,000-year-old caldera. New Zealand, with its volcanoes in the North Island, is also known for extensive geothermal areas, with Rotorua perhaps being the best known one. Geysir in Iceland, which is the namesake for all geysirs in the world, is another famous geothermal region. The Maori people of New Zealand, who traditionally cooked their food by burying it underground with heated rocks (known as a hangi), often make use of the geothermal heat instead if they live in a geothermally active area. Similarly, Iceland has a tradition of baking rye bread underground using the geothermal heat.

Stay safe

Scientists can make predictions about volcanic activity, and those predictions are good enough to make it essential for travellers to check local media for current warnings when planning any trip to a volcanic area. However, the problem is complex so predictions are generally not precise and sometimes not entirely reliable.

Public safety authorities may order hazard areas evacuated and visitors should certainly follow such advice. However, the onset of some volcanic events can be quite sudden, and in those cases there might be considerable damage before the government can react. Also, authorities may be slow to act in much of the world since evacuations are disruptive, expensive and sometimes controversial. If you are near a volcano that begins to act restless — perhaps earth tremors or expelling steam or dust — it may be wise to leave the area before any evacuation order.

Volcanoes are complex and can be quite different from each other, so for most of them it is a good idea to have an expert guide who knows the particular mountain you want to visit. If you want to go anywhere near an erupting volcano, then a guide is absolutely essential. On the other hand, climbing some volcanoes without a guide is reasonable; for example Mount Fuji has not erupted since 1708, scientists are not issuing warnings, and there are well-marked trails.

For some volcanoes, mountaineering skills and equipment are needed, and for some altitude sickness is an additional hazard.

Eruptions

An erupting volcano is extremely dangerous. Unless you have an excellent reason for going near one, the best advice is to stay away and watch it from a considerable distance, or even from the safety of your home or hotel on the TV news.

Volcano hazard zones can extend for dozens of kilometers, and there are multiple hazards:

Pyroclastic flows rush down a volcano quickly, consuming everything in their path.
  • Lava is molten rock spewing forth from the volcano. In addition to the direct danger, a large lava flow radiates enough heat to ignite vegetation and kill animals at a considerable distance.
  • Pyroclastic flows are streams of red-hot ash and debris that rush downslope from their source vents, incinerating anything flammable in their path. They can reach temperatures up to 800°C (almost 1500°F) and travel at up to 150 km/h (93 mph).
  • Volcanic bombs are rocks thrown upward by eruptions; they can be thrown thousands of meters high and may land dozens of km away. They range from pebbles to the size of a house, but the most dangerous ones are in the size range between an egg and a soccer ball, big enough to kill or cause serious injuries but light enough to often be thrown long distances.
  • Jökulhlaups are floods, which can be caused by the volcano melting parts of a glacier. On Iceland there have been peak discharges in the order of magnitude of floods of the Amazon River. Bridges downstream from Vatnajökull used to get destroyed on a regular basis.
  • Lethal gasses are gasses from eruptions, typically carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide. Often, but not always, the stink of sulphurous compounds provides a warning; avoid areas with a rotten egg smell. Also try to stay upwind of any vents releasing gasses; assume any vent with steam may also have nastier gasses. Walking toward a vent, keep the wind at your back; walking away, keep it in your face.

Staying on high ground when observing a volcano gives you a better view and reduces several hazards. The dangerous gasses are heavier than air and collect in low-lying areas, and lava, pyroclastic flow and floods all tend to follow the contours of the land. A combination of distance and altitude also reduces the risk from volcanic bombs. Often the best place to observe is from high on the other side of a valley, well away from the volcano. Bring binoculars and a telephoto lens.

Ashfall, volcanic mudflows, and the effects of earthquakes can extend for hundreds of kilometers away from the volcano. The most famous victim of ashfall was the Roman city of Pompeii, buried in 79 CE by Mount Vesuvius. Those two were only about 8 km (5 miles) apart, but ash can also be transported by air in vast quantities over a huge area. The enormous (VEI-8) prehistoric eruption of Yellowstone spread ash over most of the US and parts of Canada and Mexico.

Volcanic ash tends to stop aircraft and vehicle engines, so transportation in the area may be restricted or disrupted. An eruption in Iceland in 2010 shut down airports in Europe, more than 1000 km away. The 2020 eruption of Taal Volcano in the Philippines shut down Manila airport, about 50 km away, for several days.

Dormant volcanoes

When a volcano is dormant, you can go fairly close to it and still be safe, but even dormant volcanoes are hazardous. Lava flows can still be hot for years after an eruption and only a thin crust of rock may be covering them. Old lava flows can be sharp as broken glass, so you should wear hiking boots or very thick shoes. To add to these dangers, lethal gases may be seeping out of vents near the volcano.

A lahar is like an avalanche or flash flood of old ash from an eruption that becomes mobile by rainfall, earthquake or a collapsing crater lake. They can occur long after eruptions, travel many kilometers, and be devastating. While eruptions can give warning signs, lahars can have no warning. Watch out for possible lahars when there are heavy rains.

Geothermal areas

Geothermal areas can have hazards similar to those of volcanoes due to geological mechanisms. Hot springs and mud pools can be dangerous due to heat, acidity, or poison, so do not go near these areas unless you know for sure that they are totally safe. Geysers are a common feature of major geothermal areas, and can erupt hot water or mud unexpectedly.

Landslides are also common in geothermal areas, as even volcanic rock can become weakened over time. Acidic fumes can seep out of fumaroles (steam/gas vents) or hot springs. Noxious gases can also be encountered coming out of holes in the ground, and the gases can reach dangerous levels in enclosed spaces like caves, manholes, or pool enclosures. Carbon dioxide, which is a byproduct of volcanic activity, is known for going into enclosed spaces and it can kill swiftly with little or no warning.

Destinations

A selection of some of the more active and/or better known volcanoes in the world today. Some of these can still be explored from up close.

Map of Volcanoes

Africa

The glow from the lava lake of the Nyiragongo volcano can be seen at night.
The Nyiragongo lava lake from the rim (around 500–700m above)
  • 1 Mount Cameroon (Mongo ma Ndemi). The only volcano outside of Europe to have records of an eruption before the Common Era in 5 BC. It remains active today: its most recent eruption was in 2012. Near the city of Buea. Mount Cameroon on Wikipedia 
  • 2 Mount Kilimanjaro. This peak in Tanzania is Africa's tallest at 5895 m (19,340 ft). It has a series of concentric summit craters apparently less than 10,000 years old and may have last erupted less than 2000 years ago. The name Kilimanjaro means "shining mountain" in Swahili, no doubt due to the once-extensive glaciers which are unfortunately disappearing rapidly each year. Mount Kilimanjaro on Wikipedia 
  • 3 Mount Nyiragongo. In Virunga National Park in the far eastern D.R. Congo, near Goma and the Rwandan border. One of just four volcanoes in the world with a persistent lava lake, the others being Erta Ale (Ethiopia), Kilauea (Hawaii), and Mount Erebus (Antarctica). The volcano is usually accessed by overnight hike (8–10 hr up first day, hike down the following morning), with the night spent in tents on the rim of the caldera with stunning views of the lava lake and the surrounding region. Unfortunately, it is located in a conflict zone and access is occasionally blocked due to the presence of rebels & criminal gangs. It is a Decade Volcano. Mount Nyiragongo on Wikipedia 
  • 4 Ol Doinyo Lengai ("Mountain of God" in the Masai tongue). In Ngorongoro Conservation Area in Tanzania, this is the only volcano on Earth that erupts natrocarbonatite lava. This type of lava emerges black, cools to grey, and oxidizes to white. Ol Doinyo Lengai on Wikipedia 
  • 5 Volcanoes National Park. This park in Rwanda is famous as the home of mountain gorillas. 

Asia

India

  • 6 Barren Island. This is the only volcano in the Andaman Islands and the only active volcano in India. Day trips can be arranged from Port Blair. No additional permit is required to visit the island, but it is not possible to land on the island, only to view it from the boat. Barren Island (Q248212) on Wikidata Barren Island (Andaman Islands) on Wikipedia (updated May 2020)

Indonesia

With 167 known active volcanoes, Indonesia is the world's most volcanic country by far.

  • 7 Krakatoa. This is an island in West Java province with several volcanoes on it which produced multiple explosions in 1883. The largest is estimated to have been equivalent to 200 megatons of TNT, about four times the largest H-bomb ever tested, and the sound was heard 5,000 km (3,100 mi) away. The dust cloud had worldwide effects; global temperatures dipped by over a degree. This was a VEI-6 event. 
  • Mount Batur in Bali is a very accessible active volcano which takes just 2 hours to climb.
  • Mount Agung is a highly visible volcano in the interior of Bali. "Agung" means "great" in Indonesian. The volcano is considered quite sacred by Balinese people, and its slopes are home to the beautiful temple complex of Besakih. Its last eruption, in 1963, was quite devastating.
  • Mount Merapi in Central Java is perhaps Indonesia's single most active volcano (no mean feat). It looms large over the major cities of Yogyakarta and Solo, and the very popular temples of Borobudur and Prambanan. Merapi has erupted 68 times since formal record-keeping began in the 16th century. Its eruption on May 11, 2018, prompted the evacuation of areas within a 5-kilometre (3.1 mi) radius of the volcano, and the closure of the Yogyakarta airport. It is a Decade Volcano.
  • Mount Rinjani in Lombok is Indonesia's second highest volcano with a stunning crater lake. It's a two-day trek to the crater rim.
  • 8 Mount Tambora. This volcano in Sumbawa is one for the truly adventurous. Only about 50 visitors a year make it to this very remote volcano. In 1814 Tambora was 4,200 m (13,800 ft) high. It erupted with such force (VEI-7) the following year that 1,400 m (4,600 ft) was lost from its top. That was much the largest eruption in recent history, about ten times more powerful than the Krakatoa eruption a few decades later. It put enough dust and ash into the atmosphere to cause a "volcanic winter" that affected most of the Northern hemisphere; livestock deaths and crop failures caused the worst famine of the century. 

Japan

  • 9 Mount Aso. This is on the island of Kyushu; it is one of the largest active volcanoes in the world with the largest caldera. 
  • 10 Mount Fuji. Located in central Japan near Tokyo, this is Japan's highest and most beautiful volcano. It is also the most climbed mountain in the world because so many people climb it to view the sunrise from its summit crater. 
  • 11 Sakurajima. This is an active volcano just outside of Kagoshima. 

Philippines

The Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology lists 23 volcanoes as "active"; 21 of those have erupted in the last 600 years. Another 25 are listed as "potentially active" and 355 as "inactive".

  • 12 Mayon Volcano (within Albay). Often described as the world's most perfect volcano cone, Mayon had a fatal eruption in 1993. 
  • 13 Taal Volcano (in Batangas province). This is a complex volcano system described as a "lake in a volcano in a lake" and one of the most picturesque landscapes in the Philippines. Often reached via the nearby city of Tagaytay, where package tours to the volcano are offered. It is the Philippines's second most active volcano, with history of destructive eruptions and one of the "Decade Volcanoes". An eruption in early 2020 forced the evacuation of several towns. 

Russia

  • Kamchatka, Russia's largest Pacific peninsula, has several active volcanoes and some hot springs and geysers

Europe

Canary Islands

  • 14 El Teide. This volcano in Tenerife is the highest active volcano in the Canary Islands at 3715 m (12,188 ft). A flank vent at El Teide was observed erupting by Christopher Columbus and his crew in 1492. El Tiede is one of the Decade Volcanoes. It is in Teide National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. 

Greece

  • 15 Nisyros. This island in the Greek Dodecanese islands is the top of a volcano, mildly active with smoking fumaroles. It is possible to walk into the crater floor for a closer look. 
  • 16 Santorini. This island in the Aegean Sea is the largest of a ring of islands around an ancient caldera, and probably Greece's most famous volcano. It had a VEI-7 eruption around 1600 BCE. Some historians suggest the associated tsunami and earthquakes destroyed the Minoan civilization on nearby Crete, or that the devastation of these islands is the origin of the Atlantis myth, but both those theories are quite controversial.
    The volcano is still active, for it last erupted in 1950 out of Nea Kameni ("New Burnt" in Greek), an island made up of lava flows in the middle of the caldera bay.     

Iceland

Slopes of Hekla and surrounding landscape.

Iceland has many active volcanoes, among them Hekla, Katla and Askja. In medieval times Hekla was thought to be a gateway to Hell. It has had five eruptions since 1947 (the last being in 2000), and is regarded as unpredictable. A volcano below the Eyjafjallajökull glacier famously disrupted European air travel for days with an ash cloud released during an eruption in the year 2010.

Italy

  • 17 Vesuvius. This is a dormant volcano near Naples. It has not been smoking since it last erupted in 1944, but it is still very closely and carefully monitored because of its seriously hazardous proximity to that city, which is southern Italy's most populous. It is famous for its eruption in 79 CE, which buried the Roman cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum under layers of pumice, ash and lava fragments. 
  • 18 Mount Etna. in Sicily is Europe's tallest volcano at 3,350 m (10,990 ft) and is quite active. Mount Etna (Q16990) on Wikidata Mount Etna on Wikipedia (updated May 2020)
  • 19 Stromboli. This volcano in the Aeolian Islands has been in near continuous activity since at least the time of the Ancient Greeks and has been billed as the "Lighthouse of the Mediterranean". 

Both Etna and Vesuvius are Decade Volcanoes.

North America and Caribbean

Volcano evacuation route signs are common in the Pacific Northwest
  • Mount Baker in Washington State, USA, is one of the five major stratovolcanoes in the area that have produced over 200 eruptions in the last 12,000 years.
  • Mount St. Helens, in Washington State, USA, is famous for its May 18, 1980 eruption. This was a VEI-5 event, one of the largest of the century. Since late 2004, it has been erupting once again, but not nearly as violently - this time, a new lava dome is slowly being extruded in its crater.
  • Mount Hood, at a height of 11,239 ft (3,426 m) is the highest mountain in the state of Oregon and a major outdoor recreation site in the Pacific Northwest. Located about 50 mi (80 km) east-southeast of Portland, the mountain is visible from the city on clear days and usually forms the backdrop for the Portland skyline in postcards and photographs of the city.
  • Mount Rainier, in Washington State, USA, at 14,410 ft (4,390 m), is the most prominent peak in the Cascade Range. The mountain stands nearly three miles higher than the lowlands to the west and one and one-half miles higher than the adjacent mountains. The volcano, which last erupted approximately 150 years ago, is encased in over 35 sq mi (91 km2) of snow and ice. It is the only Decade Volcano in the continental United States.
  • Mount Redoubt, about 180 km (110 mi) southwest of Anchorage, is the largest active volcano in mainland Alaska.
  • Popocatepetl, near Mexico City, often has a volcanic plume above its crater which is 5,450 m (17,880 ft) high. The name means "smoking mountain" in the native Nahuatl language.
  • 20 Mount Pelée. An eruption here in 1902 wiped out the town of Saint-Pierre (Martinique). Attractions of the rebuilt town today include a volcano museum and wreck diving around the many ships sunk by that eruption. 
  • Soufriere Hills volcano on Montserrat, previously considered dormant, began erupting again in 1995, forcing the closure of the southern half of the island (including its capital and airport in 1997). It is still active, though mostly a nuisance seeping lava and spewing ash into the air.

Canada has no active volcanoes and is thought to have had only about 50 eruptions in the past 10,000 years. However, the Canadian Rockies include many dormant volcanoes; geologically they are part of the same system that produces active volcanoes in Washington, Oregon and Alaska.

South and Central America

  • Cotopaxi in Ecuador, often misstated as being the highest volcano in the world (despite its elevation of 5,911 m (19,393 ft), it does not even make the top ten list of highest active volcanoes - see this list here), is still one of South America's most spectacular volcanoes.
  • Arenal in Costa Rica, the youngest volcano of the country. Its eruptions were frequent until 2010, but now it is calm.
  • The Volcanoes of Concepción (active) and Maderas (dormant) that form the island of Ometepe , Nicaragua

Oceania

Hawaii

  • 21 Kilauea. This volcano on the Big Island of Hawaii, has been erupting continuously out of its flank vent, known as Pu'u O'o ("Hill of the O'o bird" in the native Hawai'ian language) since 1983. You can normally peer safely into its magma chamber from an observation point a couple of miles away in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park after nightfall. 
  • Mauna Loa, also in Hawaii, is the state's highest historically active volcano and is topped by the Moku'aweoeo Caldera. It is also the largest volcano by volume in the world. Don't be fooled by its gentle slopes - with its highest point at 4170m/13,683 ft), the altitude can be hard on inexperienced hikers and its summit is often covered in snow during the winter. It is Hawaii's only Decade Volcano.
  • Mauna Kea is the highest volcano in Hawaii at 4205 m (13,796 ft), and is pockmarked with cinder cones. Its high elevation is also a magnet for astronomers with their giant telescope facilities - and even skiers.
  • Hale'akala ("House of the sun" in Hawai'ian), is the tallest volcano on the island of Maui, and is renowned for its erosional crater and the cinder cones nestled inside.

New Zealand

  • 22 Tongariro National Park. This park has three active volcanoes, Mount Ruapehu, Mount Tongariro and Mount Ngauruhoe. Ruapehu, New Zealand's highest volcano, has a crater lake that forms and fills when the volcano is not erupting. 
  • 23 White Island. is a volcanic island in the Bay of Plenty, southeast of Auckland, and the most active volcano in New Zealand. Tours used to go to the island, until an eruption in 2019 killed a large number of visitors. Whakaari/White Island (Q557077) on Wikidata Whakaari / White Island on Wikipedia (updated May 2020)
  • 24 Taupo. This town is located next to New Zealand's largest lake, which is the caldera of a supervolcano. It had a VEI-7 eruption in 180 CE that produced red skies as far away as Rome and China. Around 25,000 BCE it had a VEI-8 blast. 

Papua New Guinea

Mt Tavurvur, New Britain, Papua New Guinea
  • 25 Mount Tavurvur. This is a very active volcano right next to the city of Rabaul on the island of New Britain. Much of the town was destroyed in a 1994 eruption. It last erupted in 2006, shattering windows up to 12 km (7.5 mi) away and sending an ash plume 18,000 m (59,000 ft) into the stratosphere. 
  • Mount Ulawun is another very active volcano on New Britain. It is New Guinea's only Decade Volcano.

Antarctica

Over 130 volcanoes have been discovered in the frozen wastelands of Antarctica, and with many erupting underneath the dense ice sheets they are not particularly practical to visit.

  • 26 Mount Erebus. At 3,794 metres (12,448 ft) Mount Erebus is the highest and most active volcano on the continent. There used to be aerial tours over the volcano from New Zealand until a fateful crash in 1979. Mount Erebus (Q188982) on Wikidata Mount Erebus on Wikipedia (updated May 2020)

Travel agencies

The following travel agencies specialize in volcano tourism.

  • VolcanoDiscovery, Germany, tel. 49 2241-2080175, 30 2107522310. This tour operator specializes in international volcanoes and one of its most important programs is for Indonesian volcanoes. The tours are trekking & photography tours with small groups and an intensive personal service. The tours are usually about 7–14 days.

See also

This travel topic about Volcanoes is a usable article. It touches on all the major areas of the topic. An adventurous person could use this article, but please feel free to improve it by editing the page .